Cancer immunotherapy aims to overcome the inability of the immune system to efficiently protect against the establishment of tumors or reject established tumors.
Lentiviral Vectors (LVs)
Lentiviral vectors (LVs) are efficient gene transfer agents. They are stable and can be concentrated by ultracentrifugation to high titers. Compared to adenovirus, for example, they generate little immune consequences on their own reducing responses against transduced cells. Advances in LV design, safety, and long-term testing will increase their clinical adaptation. LVs have been used in cancer immunogene therapy (Metharom, P. et al., 2001; Firat, H. et al., 2002), the induction of DCs (Esslinger, C. et al., 2003) and antigen presentation for CTL responses (Breckpot, K. et al., 2003; Esslinger, C. et al., 2003), and the transduction of CD34+ cells differentiated into DCs towards HIV/AIDS immunotherapy DCs (Gruber, A. et al., 2003).Interleukin-12
Cancer cells express antigens. Despite the presence of such antigens, tumors are generally not readily recognized and eliminated by the host, as evidenced by the development of disease. The inability of the immune system to protect against tumors may be due to mechanisms of evasion, active suppression, or sub-optimal activation of the response.
Cytokines are integral to both the innate and acquired immune systems. They can alter the balance of cellular and humoral responses, alter class switching of B lymphocytes and modify innate responses.
Interleukin-12 is a heterodimeric cytokine with multiple biological effects on the immune system. It is composed of two subunits, p35 and p40, both of which are required for the secretion of the active form of IL-12, p70. Interleukin-12 acts on dendritic cells (DC), leading to increased maturation and antigen presentation, which can allow for the initiation of a T cell response to tumor specific antigens. It also drives the secretion of IL-12 by DCs, creating a positive feedback mechanism to amplify the response. Once a response is initiated, IL-12 plays a fundamental role in directing the immune system towards a Th1 cytokine profile, inducing CD4+ T cells to secrete interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) and leading to a CD8+ cytotoxic T cell response.4 However, IL-12 is also a strong pro-inflammatory cytokine that leads to the secretion of other cytokines including tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) which, combined with IFN-γ, is a prerequisite for the development of CD4+ cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTL).5 Furthermore, IL-12 can promote the activation of innate immune cells such as macrophages and eosinophils through its induction of IFN-γ and other cytokines. This activation then leads to IL-12 secretion by these cells and further amplification of both the innate and acquired responses.4 However, high levels of IL-12, and consequently IFN-γ, have also been associated with induction of antagonistic molecules such as IL-10 and the depletion of signalling molecules downstream of IL-12, such as STAT4.6-8 
Direct injection of recombinant IL-12 has been shown in some mouse models of leukemia.9-13 While initial human trials employing this approach were less promising (14-17 discussed in 4).
Innovative gene therapy strategies may accelerate the development of prophylactic immunotherapy against cancer.